1. Explain how lectures, demos, labs and field trips relate to course requirements and learning goals.
2. List the sequence of functions of most instrument systems, and describe how they are integrated into the system.
   
3. Explain the roles of standards, calibration, performance, exposure, procedure, and quality assurance.
4. Debate the positive and negative influences of humans in the measurement process.
5. Select instruments that are appropriate for the time and space scales of the phenomena that you want to measure.

1. Recognize and draw the symbols for circuit components (e.g., resistors, capacitors, etc.).
2. Describe and use equations for the basic circuit laws (e.g., Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Law, etc.).
3. Explain how to measure current by measuring voltage drop across a resistance.
   
4. Explain how voltage divider circuits work, and draw their circuit diagrams.
5. Explain the principle of a bridge circuit, and be able to design and use such a circuit to measure resistance.
6. Show how to use e-folding voltage change to estimate capacitance.

1. Recognize open circuits and short circuits, and explain the hazards of short circuits and how to avoid them.
2. Demonstrate how to set up a multimeter BEFORE connecting it to a circuit to measure: voltage, current, resistance, and other characteristics. 

1. design, build, and use a bridge circuit and associated multi-meters.
   

1. List 5 or more types of thermometers and describe how they work and how you use them.
2. Calculate and plot the thermometer response (voltage, resistance, size, etc.) vs. temperature.
3. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of thermometer.
4. Select the appropriate thermometer and associated infrastructure (e.g., screens) for any measurement program.
5. Convert between different temperature units.
6. Explain the reasons for using radiation shields.

15 Jan - Lecture, Student Presentations & Demo - Temperature.

Skim: Foken Ch 20. Finish readings from Monday.
Student presentations from any of sections: Foken 7.1, 7.2, 7.8-7.9, 20.1, 20.2.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Explain and use measurement principles and parameters.
2. Summarize the history of instruments used to measure this weather variable.
3. Explain requirements for various applications, including for measuring climate.
4. Identify different instruments by their appearance.
5. Explain the physical and electrical set up needed to make these instruments work.
   
6. Anticipate the types of output from these instruments.
   
7. Participate in the subsequent Lab with high safety awareness and less trepidation.
   

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. Safely make a thermocouple.
3. Identify types of thermocouples based upon their output.
4. Use a thermocouple to measure temperature.
5. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.
   

1. List the main components and their purposes in data loggers.
2. Discuss the pitfalls in analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), and ways to avoid these errors.
3. Relate sampling frequency to Nyquist frequency, both in physical and phase (Fourier) space.
4. Describe the measurement limitations of signal amplitude, and the role of amplifier gain.
5. Describe some data transfer/storage and quality control methods.

Student presentations: Create & discuss a table comparing the attributes of the different data loggers, including price. Give your recommendation of which is best.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Recognize a Campbell Scientific data logger.
   
2. Explain why different types of meteorological inputs need to be connected to the appropriate terminals on the data logger.
   
3. Explain how to program a data logger and get it to start running its program, so you can participate in the subsequent Lab with less trepidation. 
4. Contrast the capabilities and limitation of Hobo vs. Campbell Scientific data loggers.
   

1. Use Campbell Scientific's Loggernet software to write simple data-logger programs in CRBasic, and explain what the main sections of that program will do.
   
2. Wire simple electrical circuits to connect weather sensors to data loggers, and explain how they work.
3. Teach others about analog-to-digital sampling issues, and apply this knowledge to guide your own datalogger programming.
4. Program and access data from Hobo data loggers.
   
5. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

1. Compare and contrast static vs. dynamic performance.
2. Explain the motivation for static calibration, explain how to do it, and how calibration curves relate to transfer curves.
3. Explain the difference between accuracy, precision, resolution, and sensitivity.
4. Use appropriate significant figures for your measurement and calculations.
5. Compare and contrast different types of error, and how to mitigate them.
6. Propagate errors through equations.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Estimate the response time of various sensor systems.
2. Understand and interpret dynamic-response equations for simple (first-order) sensor systems.
3. Relate e-folding response time to dynamic lag and dynamic error for step and ramp signal inputs.
4. Experimentally determine the dynamic response of a noisy signal.
5. Explain how response time affects the amplitude and phase of oscillating signals as a function of signal frequency.
6. Describe how filters work, and how sensors can act like filters to smooth the signal.

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. Use Excel spreadsheets (or any similar data analysis tool such as R, Matlab, python) to compute data statistics and create calibrated data.
   
3. Create the equations needed to propagate error for any sensor.
4. Compare the response time of thermocouples vs. hobo temperature measurements to step changes in temperature.
   
5. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

1. List 4 or more types of barometers and describe how they work and how you use them.
2. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of barometer.
3. Select the appropriate barometer and associated infrastructure for any measurement program.
4. Convert between different pressure units, and reduce pressure to sea level, and apply other necessary corrections.

5 Feb - Midterm Exam #1. => Postponed to Friday 7 Feb due to snow.

Covers all learning goals (lectures, labs, readings, HW) from weeks 1 - 4. (Does not cover Pressure.)
Exam procedure: Individual exam (30 minutes), then after a 5 minute break, the group exam (15 minutes). Fully open book. We will provide additional sheets with eqs. (see example from previous exams).

By the end of this period, you should be able to demonstrate for the sensors and methods covered so far:

1. Explain the physical principles behind each sensor.  Namely, how do they work?
   
2. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of sensor.
3. Calculate and use static and dynamic response characteristics.
   
4. Explain how data loggers work, and discuss their characteristics and limitations, and program them.
   
5. Convert between different units. Also calculate and propogate errors.

7 Feb -Lecture , Demo & Lab - Pressure.
Lecture is moved to Wednesday 5 Feb (zoom only), due to snow.  Lab is still today (in person).

By the end of the lab, you should be able to:

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. Read, interpret, and compare the pressure from different barometers
   
3. Apply appropriate corrections to raw pressure and gravity data.
4. Convert between pressure units.
   
5. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

1. List 4 or more types of hygrometers and describe how they work and how you use them.
2. Calculate and plot the hygrometer response (voltage, resistance, size, temperature) vs. humidity.
3. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of hygrometer, and describe how you can calibrate the hygrometer.
4. Select the appropriate hygrometer and associated infrastructure for any measurement program.
5. Convert between different humidity units.
   

Finish the readings. Student presentations from any of the subsections in Foken 8.2, 8.6.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Identify different instruments by their appearance
2. Explain the physical and electrical set up needed to make these instruments work
3. Anticipate the types of output from these instruments
4. Participate in the subsequent Lab with less trepidation.

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. List the potential problems and sources of error for each sensor.
   
3. Calculate and convert between different humidity variables.
   
4. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

1. Bin precipitation rates into qualitative categories.
2. List 4 types of precipitation gauges and explain how they work.
3. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of gauge.
4. Describe ways to measure snow depth.
5. Explain typical difficulties in precipitation measurement and how they can be mitigated.

Finish the readings. Student presentations from any of the subsections in Foken 12.2, 12.6.1, 12.6.5, 12.6.6, 12.7 .

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Identify different instruments by their appearance
2. Explain the physical and electrical set up needed to make these instruments work
3. Anticipate the types of output from these instruments
4. Participate in the subsequent Lab with less trepidation.

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. Perform calculations to critically analyze data from these sensors.
3. Discern which precipitation sensors are appropriate for which situations/ applications.
4. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

1. Select the appropriate anemometer  and/or wind vane and associated infrastructure for any measurement program
2. Convert between different wind speed units, and between true and magnetic directions
3. Describe WMO-8 standards for siting, averaging, and gust determination.
4. Plot and utilize wind-speed frequency distributions and wind-direction roses.
   

Finish the readings. Student presentations from any of the subsections in Foken 9.2 (present as a timeline of historical advances), 9.3.9 (1 or 2 students to cover this subsection), 9.6.1, 9.7 .

1. List 5 or more types of anemometers and describe how they work and how you use them.
2. Calculate and plot the anemometer and wind-vane response (voltage, resistance, size, temperature) vs. wind speed.
3. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of anemometer and wind vane.
   

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Design a calibration scheme for anemometers using wind tunnels.
2. Identify different instruments by their appearance
3. Explain the physical and electrical set up needed to make these instruments work
   
4. Anticipate the types of output from these instruments
   
5. Analyze wind-data output from various sensors.

1. List and describe 3 or more ways to measure radiation.
2. Name 3 or more categories of radiometers and explain what type(s) of radiation they measure.
3. Compare and contrast solar vs. terrestrial radiometers.
4. Discuss how you deploy and use radiometers and their infrastructure, and what typical pitfalls and errors are.
5. Explain what emits (or reflects) the radiation being measured, and how the radiation path influences the result.
6. Convert between different radiation units.

12 Mar - Midterm Exam #2.

Covers all learning goals (lectures, labs, readings, HW) from the weeks covering pressure, humidity, precipitation, and wind. (Does not cover radiation.)
Exam procedure: Individual exam (30 minutes) and group exam (15 minutes). Open-book.

By the end of this period, you should be able to demonstrate for the sensors and methods covered so far:

1. Explain the physical principles behind each sensor.  Namely, how do they work?
   
2. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and typical errors of each type of sensor.
3. Calculate and use static and dynamic response characteristics of these sensors.
   
4. Convert between different units. Also calculate and propogate errors.

14 Mar - Lecture Radiation (continued).  Also Intro to Air Pollutants, if time.  
&  Lab - Radiation.

Readings BEFORE class: WMO Ch 16 ;

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Identify typical pollutants that are measured in the atmosphere.
2. Identify some of the ways that pollutants are measured.

By the end of the lab, you should be able to:

1. Be confident in your handling of the physical sensors and software covered in this lab.
2. Anticipate the types of output from these instruments.
   
3. Interpret and analyze real radiation data.
   
4. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

17 Mar- Lecture - Air Pollutants and How to Measure Them  .
(Guest Lecture by Davi Monticelli.)

Readings BEFORE class: WMO8-chapter 16.  Foken Chapters 15-19 & 21.

 

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Identify typical pollutants that are measured in the atmosphere.
2. Identify some of the ways that pollutants are measured.
3. Contrast advantages and disadvantes of open path vs. closed-path sensors.
   
4. Estimate the response time and errors associated with pollutant measurement methods.
5. Calibrate the pollutant sensors.
   

19 Mar - Lecture & - Upper Air Soundings
Demo - Sondes and drones.

Readings BEFORE class: WMO8 Ch 16 ; Foken Ch 46.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. List at least four different platforms for in-situ measurement, and discuss the sondes carried by those platforms.
2. Compare Vaisala and Windsond sondes, including the methods used to determine temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind.
3. Describe and explain the errors associated with radiosonde measurements.
4. Compare and contrast in-situ and remote-sensor methods for making upper-air measurements (soundings).
5. Discuss the limitations of the upper-air network, and regions where coverage is inadequate.

21 Mar  - Lecture - Upper Air Soundings.

Readings BEFORE class: Harrison Ch 11 and Brock Ch 12.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. List at least four different platforms for in-situ measurement, and discuss the sondes carried by those platforms.
2. Compare Vaisala and Windsond sondes, including the methods used to determine temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind.
3. Describe and explain the errors associated with radiosonde measurements.
4. Compare and contrast in-situ and remote-sensor methods for making upper-air measurements (soundings).
5. Discuss the limitations of the upper-air network, and regions where coverage is inadequate.

Lab - - Upper Air Soundings.  (Note: for 2025, the week 10 and 11 labs were swapped.)

(Includes tutorial review of thermo diagrams and hodographs.)

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Calculate the required balloon size and inflation amount using helium pr hydrogen for Vaisala and Windsond sondes.
   
2. Determine mandatory and significant levels from raw sounding data.
3. Plot the sounding on a thermo diagram (skew-T or tephigram).  You can either do it by hand, or use a canned sounding plotting program.
4. Plot the winds on a hodograph.
   
5. Determine static stability, dynamic stability, likelihood of turbulence, and thunderstorm indices.
   

24 Mar - Lecture- Visibility, Ceiling and Clouds   

Readings BEFORE class: Harrison Ch 10 sections 10.1 - 10.3; Brock Ch 11 ; Foken Ch 13, 22 & 24; and WMO-8 Ch9 & 15.
Harrison Ch 12.5 and Stull-Boundary Layer Met. Ch 8 section 4, 6, 7.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Define visibility, cloud height and ceiling, and explain why they are important
2. List two visibility measurement methods and explain how they work
3. Compare and contrast remote sensors vs in-situ methods of measuring visibility and ceilings, and explain the relevant physical principles.
4. List two automated ground-based methods for measuring cloud coverage, and explain how they work.
5. Explain the standards for making these measurements, and discuss typical errors.

1. Recognize drones and explain their capabilities and limitations for making meteorological measurements. (readings in Foken Ch 49.)
   

26 Mar - Lecture - Running Field Programs
Guest Lecturer: Dr. Rosie Howard, on the 2010 Winter Olympics field program. 

By the end of this class, you should be able to:

1. Anticipate the actions you need to take, and issues you need to consider, when you designe a field program.
2. Anticipate pitfalls and ways to overcome them. 

1. **Explain the capabilities and limitations of microcontrollers such as Arduino.
2. Learn how to install the Arduino software and its dependencies.
3. Write sketches (i.e., computer programs) and upload them to a microcontroller board (https://www.adafruit.com/product/3333).
4. **Explain how particulate matter is measured using an optical particle counter.
5. **Explain how data can be wirelessly transmitted between an instrument and data logger.
6. Learn how to wire a board (https://www.adafruit.com/product/2772) to a particulate matter sensor (https://www.plantower.com/en/).
7. Conduct a calibration of the https://cerodell.github.io/fire_sensors/build/html/index.html with the https://rrmckinney.github.io/ramp/build/html/intro.html.

For this topic only, the subset of learning goals indicated with ** are testable on the final exam.

1. Define a flux in both dynamic and kinematic units, and interpret those units physically.
2. Relate statistics to energies and fluxes.
3. Contrast the capabilities and limitations of eddy-correlation, profile, Bowen-ratio, and other methods for flux measurement.
4. Identify fast-response instruments suitable for eddy-correlation measurements of temperature, wind, and humidity.
5. Explain why physical co-location and precise timing are critical to successful eddy-correlation measurements.
6. Compute turbulence spectra from fast-response sensors, and explain the nature of spectral subranges.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Recognize fast-response turbulence sensors and explain how they work.
2. Explain why these sensors are often very delicate and easily damaged.
3. Set up data loggers to handle the extremely high sampling rates needed for turbulence measurements.
4. Interpret the spectra of turbulence.
   

1. Use observations to calculate turbulence statistics such as mean wind (M), standard deviation (sigma), turbulence kinetic energy (TKE), and turbulence intensity (sigma/M). 
   
2. Combine fast-response-sensor outputs to estimate heat fluxes using the eddy-correlation method.
   
3. Use K-theory, Bowen-ratio, and other surface-layer mean-profile methods to estimate surface fluxes.
   
4. Reinforce the learning goals from the lecture and demo.

4 Apr - Lab - Fast-response Flux Sensors and associated Data Analysis

-.or -

7 Apr - - Lecture & Demo

Guest Lectures - Lynn Engel, Roland Stull  & others will present their field experiences.

By the end of this period, you should be able to:

1. Plan a field program. 
2. Set it up.
3. Run it.
4. Anticipate potential problems.
   
5. Organize the results for quality control and analysis.

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Explain how logistics are important to field programs.  Namely, all the non-scientific aspects of setting-up and running a field program.
   
2. Anticipate difficulties in harsh Canadian environments; e.g., cold and snowy,  forest fires,  steep mountains, etc.
   
3. Expect that field programs do not always work as planned.
4. Design and execute your own field program.
5. Discuss how instrumented aircraft and drones can be used for field experiments.
6. Explain why it is important to inspect the data you are gathering while you are still out in the field.

Last class day of term.

- .

(Under construction.)